Addiction and Behavior Essay Example for Free

Addiction and Behavior Essay Thesis Statement: In this paper, I will try and analyze addiction and the various behaviors that addiction will induce in an individual, and I will also describe the kinds of addiction that an average individual is prone to, and research the efforts that are being made for an addict to try to control his offensive behavior brought on by his addiction. Experts feel and do stress on the fact that addictions and compulsions of any kind stem and originate from an overwhelming feeling of not being in control of one’s life, and a need to gain some form of control over events that seem to be overtaking him or her. Certain addictions, however, possess genetic components, and are generally passed on within the family, where one member may have been addicted or been prone to compulsive behaviors. He may have inadvertently passed on this behavior to the next generation, and in these cases, this vicious cycle would continue. Addictions can be of several kinds. One such compulsion is that of an addiction to drugs or other substances, and another is an obsession for sex. Eating disorders can also qualify as addictions of compulsions, and overspending, gambling and overworking too are obsessive and compulsive disorders. According to experts, â€Å"The power of fantasy is the enduring power of addiction†, wherein an addict may be prone to developing fantasies of having gained a sense of control over his life, because of his addiction. The addict would then be quite unwilling to give up these drug induced fantasies and enter a normal life again, and this can be one of the major problems that an addict may face at the time when he is addicted; no matter what his addiction may be. The addicted individual would more often than not choose to induce mood changes in himself, instead of trying to address the actual causes of the stresses that he is faced with. Take for example an alcoholic; he would prefer to drink and blame the failure of his marriage on his spouse, rather than face the underlying issues behind the failure of his marriage. In this lies the causes and the reasons for his continued addiction to alcohol. Take the example of a money addict. This individual would prefer to binge on a spending spree, rather than face the underlying money issues, and making use of the money to settle his debts. In short, an addict behaves in such a way that he believes with strong conviction that no matter what stresses life may have to throw at him, he would be able to face them all, as long as he has his own addiction to get him through life’s tough situations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (Earll, Steven, 2004) As a result of extensive scientific research done through the years, today one can be reasonably sure that addiction as such can be qualified as a disease that affects one’s brain as well as one’s behaviors. It is interesting to note that in the past, scientists attributed addictive behaviors related to drug and alcohol abuse to the fact that the user lacked in willpower, and that he could, if he wished to, bring an end to his addictions. This was the view that shaped most of society’s responses to addicts; an addict was viewed as a morally flawed individual, who displayed serious moral failing by being unable to control his own behaviors. It is only today that the average individual is able to comprehend the basic fact that addiction may be the result of a combination of different factors, and that it can must be treated as a disease than could cause great harm to one’s health. Scientists today use this vital knowledge to create and develop effective methods of treatment, which would be able to reduce the toll that addiction has on the individual’s family and friends. Today, preventive drug abuse has gained precedence over other forms of treatment, and this has been proven to help addicts get over their addictions with a reasonable amount of success. Drug addiction or abuse as such can be described as a chronic and relapsing disease that affects the brain of the user, despite the user being aware of the fact that such abuse can result in grave consequences for him in the long run. One must remember that the longer an individual is addicted to drugs, the more harmful the impact of the drugs on his brain, and the more harmful his behavior may become. To understand the true nature of addiction, one must first try to understand why people take drugs, and exactly why they become addicted to drugs and other substances. One of the more important and one of the first reasons according to researchers is that an individual starts taking drugs so that he may feel good. Most drugs induce a sense of great pleasure in the individual who has taken them, and more importantly, the user feels a sense of power, self confidence and self assurance that he would never feel in normal life. Perhaps, the sense of power, feelings of relaxation and of intense satisfaction that the drugs have given him induces him to take more, and then some more, until the time when he can no longer control his intake, and at which time he is considered to be addicted. Individuals, who may suffer from feelings of acute anxiety, or from stress related disorders, or from clinical depression, are also prone to use drugs to help them overcome these feelings. Some others may feel that drugs may help them perform better, like for example an athlete, who may take performance enhancing drugs that would help him win. Adolescents may be particularly vulnerable to drug addiction, perhaps because of peer pressure, or simply because ‘others are doing it, why not me?’ the sad fact is that although drugs may offer the user a sense of satisfaction and power at the outset, it is true that as time goes by, the user will feel that he has to take more quantities of the same drug, if he wished to achieve the same feelings of euphoria and pleasure. It is at this time that the user realizes that he would not be able to function without a ‘fix’, at which time he may be considered an ‘addict’. Drug addicts reach a point of time when they pursue the drug as if it were a lifeline, regardless of the behavioral problems that the Drug usage may cause in them, and the trouble that they may be causing others around them, because of the drug usage and addiction. It is at this point of time that drug usage becomes known as drug abuse and addiction, and it is at this point that the addict’s self control becomes severely strained and impaired. Scientists have conducted brain imaging and mapping studies of drug addicts, and the findings show that for addicted individuals, physical changes become evident in the areas of the brain that would normally control judgment, decision making, memory, and even behavior control. These are the changes in the brain that affect the addict’s behaviors, and they may well be able to shed light on the compulsive and the addictive behaviors displayed by an addict. A tragic factor is that an adolescent’s brain continues to develop and grow into adulthood, and when the adolescent uses drugs and becomes addicted to them, then he undergoes dramatic changes in his pre-frontal cortex, that area of the brain that would enable him to assess a particular give situation, make decisions based on his judgment of that situation, and keep his desires and yearnings under control, as any normal adolescent would do. This means that the adolescent would be forced to lose control over a given situation, and submit to the influence of drug addiction on his behavior. Therefore, say experts, introducing drugs or other substances at this stage of development would automatically have a long lasting negative impact on the young person who has become addicted. (Volkow, D Nora (2007)

The Life Of William Harvey

The Life Of William Harvey William Harvey an English physician, was the first to describe the circulation of the human body and properties of blood being transported throughout the body by its mechanical pump, the heart. He studied medicine at the University of Padua in Italy and was tutored by surgeon Hieronymus Fabricius. Fabricius, was fascinated by anatomy, and discovered that the veins in the human body had one-way valves, but was not too sure as to what their function was. Harvey went on, based on Fabriciuss findings, to figure out the role valves play in circulation of the body. He returned from Italy in 1602 and established himself as a physician. His career was taken to a whole new, better level when he married Elizabeth Browne, the daughter of Elizabeth Is physician. They were married in 1604. He became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1607 and, in 1609, was appointed physician to St Bartholomews Hospital. The highlight of his career, however was probably when he became physician to Elizabeths successor James I and to James son Charles when he ascended to the throne, in 1618. Both King James and King Charles took a close interest in and encouraged Harvey in every step of his research. Harveys research was furthered through the dissection of animals. He first revealed his theories at the College of Physicians in 1616. In 1628 he published these theories in a book titled Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the Blood in Animals). Here was where he explained how the heart pumped the blood in a circular course through the body. His discovery received great accolades and interest in England, although it was greeted with some scepticism on the Continent. Harvey was also the first to theorize that humans and other mammals reproduced via the fertilisation of an egg by sperm. It took another two centuries before a mammalian egg was finally observed, but Harveys theory still won credibility during his lifetime. Harvey held a close relationship with the royal family through the English Civil War and also witnessed the Battle of Edgehill. Harvey is often credited as the Father of Cardiovascular Medicine. His observations of dissected hearts showed that the valves in the heart allowed blood to flow in only one direction. Also, even though he lacked a microscope, he theorized that the arteries and veins were connected to each other by capillaries, which were later be discovered by Marcello Malpighi some years after Harveys death. William Harveys work became the foundation for all modern research on the heart and cardiovascular medicine. It has been said that Harveys proof of the continuous circulation of the blood within a contained system was the seventeenth centurys most significant achievement in physiology and medicine. He is also often referred to as the Father of Scientific Method. Harvey believed that direct observation was the correct way to draw conclusions about scientific facts. He kept records of his experiments. He did not record his findings until he proved them. This practice became known as the scientific method, and Harvey has received much credit for having promoted its use. Historical background William Harvey was the eldest child of merchant Thomas Harvey and Joan Halke and was born in Folkestone, Kent on the 1st of April, 1578 . His father was known to be a styled gentleman, who upon referring to the register of Williams matriculation at Cambridge, was designated a yeoman of Kent. He must have been a man of some substance and position, as all of his seven sons followed careers, and attained positions necessitating the possession of capital at the outset. William had five brothers who were all merchants of repute in the city of London. They traded extensively with Turkey and the Levant. John, the second son, was at one time Member of Parliament for Hythe, and afterwards became Kings Beceiver for Lincolnshire, and Footman to His Majesty. Of Joan Halke, Harveys mother, but little has been preserved to us, and that little has been derived from the inscription on a monumental slab in Folkestone Church. She is there described as having died in her 50th year, the mother of seven sons and two daughters. A Godly harmles Woman: A chaste loveing Wife: A charitable quiet Neighbour: A cofortable frendly Matron: A pevident diligent Huswyfe: A careful teder-harted Mother. Deere to her Husband: Eeverensed of her Children: Beloved of her Neighbours: Elected of God. Whose Soule Best in Heaven: her Body in this Grave: To Her a Happy Advantage: To Hers an Unhappy Loss. Conjecture has attributed the authorship of the inscription to her son William. There were two daughters, one of whom died young, and of the other nothing beyond her name is known. Harvey attended Kings School in Canterbury from 1588 to 1593. There he worked at the ordinary subjects of an English education, and acquired a good knowledge of both Latin and Greek. This was essential at a time when the influence of authority was triumphant, and when even contemporary literature, to appear learned, must needs be expressed in Latin. He then studied at Cambridge University and Gonville and Caius College from 15 93 to 1599. He spent these years in the study of classics, dialectics and physics. Such a course of training was then, as now, considered a fitting prelude to the study of the science and art of medicine. In 1597, being then nineteen years of age, he was made a Bachelor of Arts of his university. At that time, and indeed until quite recently, the University of Cambridge was in a very different position with regard to the teaching of medicine from what we now find. Divinity was its chief glory, and the well equipped medical school of the present was almost unrepresented, one or two professorships only being devoted to medical subjects. Hence he decided to attend one of the premier institutes of Medicine in the Continent, located in Padua, to pursue his career in medicine. It was there that he worked with Hieronymus Fabricius, who was a well known anatomist and had observed the one-way valves in blood vessels. After graduating from Padua, he returned to England to establish himself as a physician and joined the College of Physicians on the 5th of October, 1604. After marrying Elizabeth Browne, daughter of physician Lancelot Browne, he accepted his position at St. Bartholomews Hospital, succeeding a Dr. Wilkinson, as the physician in charge of the hospital. At this point, the physicians function consisted of a simple but thorough analysis of patients who were brought to the hospital once a week and the consequent writing of prescriptions. Hieronymus Fabricius The next important phase of Harveys life began when he was appointed to the office of Lumleian lecturer on 4 August 1615. The Lumleian lectureship, consisted in giving lectures for a period of seven years, with the purpose of enlightening and increasing the general knowledge of anatomy throughout England. Harvey began his lectures in April 1616. At this time, at the age of thirty-seven, he was described as a man of lowest stature, round faced; his eyes small, round, very black and full of spirit; his hair as black as a raven and curling ( Book : William Harvey; author : Sir DArcy Power; year: 1897) . Some of the notes which he used at the time are preserved in the British Museum (the manuscript notes of which contain the first account of blood circulation). At the beginning of his lectures, Harvey laid down the canons for his guidance: To show as much as may be at a glance, the whole belly for instance, and afterwards to subdivide the parts according to their positions and relations. To point out what is peculiar to the actual body which is being dissected. To supply only by speech what cannot be shown on your own credit and by authority. To cut up as much as may be in the sight of the audience. To enforce the right opinion by remarks drawn far and near, and to illustrate man by the structure of animals. Not to praise or dispraise other anatomists, for all did well, and there was some excuse even for those who are in error. Not to dispute with others, or attempt to confute them, except by the most obvious retort. To state things briefly and plainly, yet not letting anything pass unmentioned which can be seen. Not to speak of anything that can be well explained without the body or can be read at home. Not to enter into too much detail, or in too minute dissection, for the time does not permit. To allot a definite time to each part of the body i.e. first days lectures dedicated to the abdomen, the second to the thorax, the third to the brain and so on. (Book: William Harvey; author: Sir DArcy Power; year: 1897) . He soon attained a practice of great importance, when he was appointed the Physician Extraordinary to King James I, on the 3rd of February 1618. Although Harveys practice suffered because of his radical views, he was also in the picture during King Charles Is reign. Harvey accompanied King Charles I wherever he went as Physician in Ordinary. In particular, Charles hunting expeditions gave Harvey access to many deer carcasses. Harvey made use of these deer carcasses by conducting most of his experiments on them; from these, he made his many observations and consequent theories. King James I King Charles I During the English Civil War a mob of citizen-soldiers against the King entered Harveys lodgings, stole his goods, and scattered his papers. The papers consisted of the records of a large number of dissections of diseased bodies, with this observations on the development on insects, and a series of notes on comparative anatomy. ( Book: William Harvey; author: Sir DArcy Power; year: 1897). Harvey continued to maintain his position and helped the wounded on several occasions. He also protected the Kings children. The conflicts of the Civil War soon led King Charles to Oxford, with Harvey attending, where the physician was made Doctor of Physic in 1642 and later Warden of Merton College in 1645. In Oxford he (Harvey) very soon settled down to his accustomed pursuits, unmindful of the clatter of arms and of the constant marching and countermarching around him, for the city remained the base of operations until its surrender ( Book: William Harvey; author: Sir DArcy Power; year: 1897) Merton College The surrender of Oxford in 1645 marked the beginning of Harveys gradual retirement from the medical world. Now sixty-eight years old and childless, Harvey had lost three brothers and wife at this time. He decided to return to London and live with his brothers Eliab and Daniel separately and in different periods of time. Having retired from St BartholomewHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Bartholomews_HospitalHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Bartholomews_Hospitals Hospital and his various other aforementioned positions, he passed most of this time reading general literature. Several attempts to bring Harvey back into the working world were made, however; here is an excerpt of one of Harveys answers: Would you be the man who should recommend me to quit the peaceful haven where I now pass my life and launch again upon the faithless sea? You know full well what a storm my former lucubrations raised. Much better is it oftentimes to grow wise at home and in private, than by publishing what you have amassed with infinite labour, to stir up tempests that may rob you of peace and quiet for the rest of your days. (Book: William Harvey; author: Sir DArcy Power; year :1897) He died of a stroke on June 3, 1657, and, lapt in lead, was buried in Hempstead church. Apparently, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage from vessels long injured by gout: it is highly probable that the left Sylvian artery malfunctioned, leading to a gradual accumulation of blood to the brain which eventually overwhelmed it, resulting in his death. There exists a fairly detailed account of what happened on that day; according to the information at hand, Harvey: went to speak and found that he had the dead palsy in his tongue; then he saw what was to become of him. He knew there were then no hopes of his recovery, so presently he sends for his young nephews to come up to him. He then made signs (for seized with the dead palsy in his tongue he could not speak) to let him blood his tongue, which did him little or no good, and so ended his days, dying in the evening of the day on which he was stricken, the palsy giving him an easy passport. (Book: William Harvey; author: Sir DArcy Power; year: 1897) Experimental Procedures Harvey was well trained in anatomy, and he, like his idols Versalius and Fabricius, was convinced that the interventricular septum was not leaky to blood. Also, he was born into an era in which experimentation, computation and simple observation, became recognized as essential tools of the scientific method. He was well aware of the works of Copernicus and Kepler, and of his contemporary Galileo, for whom the combination of careful observation and computation resulted in nothing less than a switch between the earth and the sun as the center of our universe; Galileos dictum Measure all that is measurable, and make those things measurable which have hitherto not been measured (Book: William Harveys Biological Ideas; author: W. Pagel; year: 1967) was deeply impressed upon him. He was also familiar with the somewhat earlier writings of Santorio Santoro, who, sitting on an exquisitely sensitive balance, compared his body weight and the difference between the ingested food and his excreta and was capable of observing that the body lost a certain amount of weight continuously in the form of insensible perspiration (Book: History of Physiology; author: E. Rothschuh; year: 1973). But Harvey himself was a pioneer (Book: Handbook of Physiology: Circulation; author: CD Leake; year: 1962 ). Unlike the great Kepler, who improved upon Copernicus observations, and Galileo, whose telescope unequivocally established the Copernican revolution, Harvey did not build on anything, revise anything, or improve on anything. This revolution was set forth in his book entitled Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus or Anatomical Essay on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals (Book: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals; author: William Harvey, translated by Keynes G; year: 1978), commonly referred to as De Motu Cordis or simply De Motu. It was published in 1628 when Harvey was already 50 years old. Knowing that he was challenging a big fish, he opened the monograph with a letter to the King, Prince Charles, with the statement : The heart of animals is the foundation of their life, the sovereign of everything within themfrom which all power proceeds. The King, in like manner, is the foundation of his kingdom, the sun of the world around him, the heart of the republic, the foundation whence all power, all grace doth flow. (Book: Scientific Papers: Physiology, Medicine, Surgery, Geology, with Introductions, Notes and Illustrations; author: William Harvey, translated by Willis R; year: 1910) His dedication to the President of the Royal College of Physicians reads like: Hey, Im really not out to get anyone, all I want to do is tell the truth! For example, in this dedication he states the studious and good and true do not esteem it discreditable to desert error, though sanctioned by the highest antiquity, for they know full well that to err, to be deceived, is human.I would not charge with willful falsehood anyone who was sincerely anxious for truth, nor lay it at any ones door as a crime that he had fallen into error. I avow myself the partisan of truth alone. (Book: Scientific Papers: Physiology, Medicine, Surgery, Geology, with Introductions, Notes and Illustrations; author: William Harvey, translated by Willis R; year: 1910) He closes: Farewell, most worthy Doctors, and think kindly of your Anatomist (Book: Scientific Papers: Physiology, Medicine, Surgery, Geology, with Introductions, Notes and Illustrations; author: William Harvey, translated by Willis R; year: 1910), suggesting that he feared the worst. Harveys revolutionary conclusion that blood is conserved and circulates was based on only a few observations, the major ones were as follows: First, he measured the total amount of blood that could be drained from sheep, pigs, and some other subprimate mammals. He then measured the volume of the left ventricles of these animals and calculated that, if the left ventricle were to empty with each beat, in one hour the total volume of blood pumped would be much greater that in the ingesta( material taken into the body by means of the digestive tract) or even that contained in the entire animal. Indeed, this would be true even if one-tenth of the blood contained by the ventricle were ejected per beat. Therefore, he concluded, it is a matter of necessity that the blood perform a circuit, that it returns to whence it set out. He then demonstrated, publicly, that when a live snake is laid open, compression of the vein entering the heart leads to a small heart that is devoid of blood upon opening it. If on the contrary, the artery instead of the vein be compressed or tied you will observe the part between the obstacle and the heart, and the heart itself to become largely distended and, in the end, to become so oppressed with blood that you will believe it about to be choked. (Book: Scientific Papers: Physiology, Medicine, Surgery, Geology, with Introductions, Notes and Illustrations; author: William Harvey, translated by Willis R; year: 1910) He also showed that, following light application of a tourniquet to the arm, the veins become engorged and that blood can only be milked from an engorged vein in the oral direction toward the heart but when the vein is thus emptied it only fills from the periphery. Also, when one knows the diameter and length of the cylinder of vein, one can calculate the volume of blood that flows through the vein during rapid emptying and refilling. Harvey showed that in a day more blood flows through that segment alone than the quantity of food ingested. Harveys experiment illustrating the venous valves (nodes or portals) and the unidirectional nature of emptying and filling. He also states: Now if you reckon the business, how much by one compression moves upwards by suppression of the portal, and multiplying that by thousands, you shall find so much blood passd by this means through a little part of a vein, that you will find yourself perfectly persuaded concerning the circulation of the blood, and of its swift motion (Book: Scientific Papers: Physiology, Medicine, Surgery, Geology, with Introductions, Notes and Illustrations; author: William Harvey, translated by Willis R; year: 1910). Harvey also possessed a lifelong obsession with animal generation. His fascination with the perfection of animals brought about his desire to find out how the organisms arise. This is described in his introduction to his Essays on the Generation of Animals. His fascination sprouted from his study of Aristotles ideas of generation. Harvey decided to further investigate Aristotles views by studying a hens eggs in order to understand the meaning of generation in animals. He justified his decision and his plan of pursuing his research in Of the Method to be pursued in studying Generation passage of the introduction to Essays of the Generation of Animals. First of all, a hens egg had a simple structure and readily available for frequent experimentation. In the introduction to his essays, he further explained that his choice of using a chicken egg was acceptable because the other animals had similar means of generation. Results drawn from the experiment he would conduct on a hens egg coul d be related to the reproduction in more complex animals; even animals that did not produce eggs. All animals reproduce with some form of an egg, which he considered to be a metaphor for the simple origin of any new life form. Harvey considered it necessary to start with the less complicated animals because this would allow him to repeat the tests many number of times to ensure accurate results. His strategy was to observe the formation of a chick to create a history of its development. Harvey would then use this information to show the cause of generation and the order in which it proceeded in. Before Harveys research, scientists believed in a theory known as pre-formation, which assumed that an animal already possessed the traits of the mature mammal and grew in size in the mothers womb. William Harvey refuted these prior theories in his consideration of the history of an eggs development. He noticed that the fetus began as a single drop of blood and then further differentiated into an egg which later became the chick. As a result, he rejected the idea that an exact replica of the organism could be found in reproductive material of either the male or the female. Harvey, however, learned by investigating the stages of development in the eggs that some parts of the animal are engendered before others. (Book: William Harvey and the Purpose of Circulation; author: Walter Pagel; year: 1951). Another concern of Harveys was the theories of previous scientists on the role of the male and the female in animal generation. Scientists before attempted to find an answer to this mystery. Galen assumed the yolk in a hens egg was a joint of male and female secretions (Book: Investigations into Generation; author: Elizabeth Gasking; year: 1967). Aristotle hypothesized that the cause of generation was the males semen acting on the menstrual blood of the female making the menstrual blood the source of matter and the semen the efficient source (Book: William Harvey and the Primacy of Blood; author: John White; year: 1986). Fabricius presumed the male caused the material and the female provided the nourishment. Harvey wanted to solve the mystery of the purpose of each sex, so he examined the male and female genital systems of the deer carcasses he found in King Charles Royal Parks (Book: Investigations into Generation; author: Elizabeth Gasking; year: 1967). Through Harveys investigation, he disproved Aristotles theories and clarified this in the passage Of the manner, according to Aristotle, in which a perfect and fruitful egg is produced by the male and female fowl in his essays (Book: The Works Of William Harvey; translated by Robert Willis; year: 1847). He did not consider Aristotles efficient cause as relevant in the discussion of reproduction because Aristotles agent of the efficiency was only semen from the male. According to Harvey, semen was an external cause and could not produce an effect on the soul of the offspring because it was not with it throughout its lifetime of the offspring (Book: Investigations into Generation; author: Elizabeth Gasking; year: 1967). Also, Harvey expla ined the female must have a role in the efficiency when he stated, The earth, too, spontaneously engenders many things without seed, and among animals, certain females, but females only, procreate of themselves and without the concurrence of the male: hens, for example, lay hypenemic eggs; but males; without the intervention of females, engender nothing (Book: The Works Of William Harvey; translated by Robert Willis; year: 1847). He deduced that if the female can reproduce without the male, then the male must not be the only agent to produce the efficiency. He was able to develop this view by looking at less complex organisms and extending it to more evolved animals because he considered all animals to share similar reproductive processes. Accordingly, he allowed himself to make broad generalizations about generation through species barriers. One of the many reasons for William Harveys success was his meticulous experimentation, now known as the scientific method. Scientists precedi ng William Harvey used experimentation in order to investigate; however, Harvey set a new standard for testing. He made precise calculations before and during experiments. For example, in his study of circulation, he calculated the exact amount of blood released from the heart with every thrust (Book: Early Reactions to Harveys Circulation Theory: The Impact on Medicine; author: Steven Lubitz; year: 2004). Harvey closely examined and dissected various animals. While many scientists such as Galen used only careless observation, Harvey tested physically and then retested numerous times to ensure his results lacked error. In fact, William Harvey was the first to apply quantitative and observational methods simultaneously within his research. He picked test subjects that would be immediately available for many experiments. In the examination of blood and animal generation, Harvey used hens eggs because they were cheap and available in abundance. As the Kings physician, Harvey examined d eer in his studies of animal generation. King Charles was fascinated by Harveys research, so he gave the carcasses of his weekly deer hunting to Harvey to dissect (Book: Where Do Babies Come From? ; author: R.V. Short; year: 2000). The substitution of the mammal into testing greatly advanced Harveys research because he could relate his concepts of reproduction to an organism that did not produce an actual egg. Contributions Harvey was awestruck by the way blood flowed through the human body. Most people of the day believed that food was converted into blood by the liver, and then was consumed as fuel by the body. Harvey knew this was false by the understanding of his firsthand observations of the human and animal dissections he made earlier to study on. In 1628 Harvey published An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the Blood in Animals which explained how blood was pumped from the heart throughout the body, then returned to the heart and re-circulated. This book expressed views that were very controversial and lost Harvey many patients, but it ultimately became the basis for all modern research on the heart and blood vessels. Unlike the other anatomical textbooks written in the past, Harveys book has only one illustration with a set of four related figures. This absence of pictures was probably deliberate to show Harveys dedication to the scientific experimental method. The reader by act ually recreating Harveys experiments was forced to follow each step of Harveys methods specifically, in a way that a general examination of illustrations did not require. The four figures depict a simple but persuasive experiment that can be performed on a human arm without dissection. The experiment involves tying the arm with a tourniquet and adjusting the tightness to demonstrate that the blood can either be cut off from the arm or permitted to overfill the arm, causing the veins to bulge. This procedure was also used for bloodletting: the removal of blood from the vein in the arm was a common treatment for a variety of medical conditions and was also a means of preventing disease. Bloodletting was a common therapy of early medicine. It was done by cutting into a vein, called venesection or phlebotomy. This work was often done by a surgeon or a barber-surgeon. The veins near the elbow were commonly used. In this book, Harvey proves the following: that it is the contraction, not the dilation, of the heart which coincides with the pulse, and that the ventricles as true muscular sacs squeeze the blood which they contain into the aorta and pulmonary artery; that the pulse is not produced by the arteries enlarging and so filling, but by the arteries being filled with blood and so enlarging; that there are no pores in the septum of the heart, so that the whole blood in the right ventricle is sent to the lungs and around by the pulmonary veins to the left ventricle, and also that the whole blood in the left ventricle is again sent into the arteries, around by the smaller veins into the vena cava, and by them to the right ventricle again thus making a complete circulation; that the blood in the arteries and that in the veins is the same blood; that the action of the right and left sides of the heart, auricles, ventricles and valves, is the same, the mechanism in both being for reception and propulsion of liquid and not of air, since the blood on the right side, though mixed with air, is still blood; that the blood sent through the arteries to the tissues is not all used, but that most of it runs through into the veins; that there is no to and fro undulation in the veins, but a constant stream from the distant parts towards the heart; that the dynamical starting-point of the blood is the heart and not the liver. This demonstration of the circulation was incomplete in one point only, though. Harvey could not discover the capillaries through which the blood passes from the arteries into the veins. This gap in the circulation was filled in several years later by the great Italian anatomist Marcello Malpighi, who in 1661, a few years after Harveys death, observed in the lungs of a frog, by the newly invented microscope, how the blood passes from the one set of vessels to the other. Harvey saw all that could be seen by the naked eye in his observations on living animals; Malpighi, four years after Harveys death, by another observation on a living animal, completed the marvelous chain of evidence. A second ground-breaking book published by Harvey in 1651, Essays on the Generation of Animals, is considered the basis for modern embryology. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, theories of embryology and development were superimposed with theories of sexual reproduction, along with a number of theories on the origins of life, most of which supported the idea of spontaneous generation. During this period debates raged over spontaneous generation, the idea that life was spontaneously created out of inanimate matter. The popular belief that living organisms propagated from mud in streams, dirt, or environments such as rotting meat was supported by a number of scholars. William Harveys research into reproduction, published in 1651 as Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium (Essays on the generation of animals), began to cast doubt on spontaneous generation. Harvey believed that all life reproduced sexually, a view that he stated with his famous dictum Ex ovo omnia (Everything comes from the egg). Although he was taught by Fabricius, William Harvey criticized his teachers views about reproduction. In fact, the inaccuracy he saw in Fabriciuss beliefs prompted his investigation of animal generation (Book: The Ovary of Eve: Egg and Sperm and Pre-formation (The organism is preformed as a complete miniature structure in the sperm or the egg and simply grows larger as it develops. This means that the first reproducing human would have had to have all succeeding generations within itself. Sort of like Russian dolls.) ; author: Pinto-Correia, Clara; year: 1997). The flaws Harvey detected were in Fabriciuss idea of the role semen played in reproduction. His teacher thought that after the male had been in contact with the female, all the eggs are made fertile. But upon his experimentation, Harvey discovered that the hen laid an egg ten days after interaction with the male, and then another thirteen days after. Hence, he concluded that the male did fertilize more than one of the yolks. Awards/ Prizes William Harvey never won any awards or prizes, al

Essay --

In my opinion I ranked the seven social sciences according to what I believed it was important and has the most influence on the people in a modern society. My first ranked for the seven social sciences is Psychology then Sociology, Political science, History, Economics, Anthropology and last Geography. Geography is the study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere, and of human activity as it affects and is affected by it, including the distribution of populations and resources, land use, and industries. Environmental influences, such as cost, changing weather, climate patterns, their potential impacts, and the threat of spreading diseases, are of increasing concern. Geography allows us to participate and enjoy our planet. It gives us a sense of reference to where we live and where we may be going in relationship to where we have been, and the appreciation of the world we live in. Anthropology is the study of human kind and culture, everybody wants to know where and how humans came to be. Our daily lives such as family, friends, co-workers and the under...

The Day of Defeat Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Day of Defeat Operation Overlord, more commonly known as D-day, took place on June sixth, 1944; though, it was not originally planned to happen when it did. In August 1943, â€Å"President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston S. Churchill, meeting in Quebec, Casablanca, or at Yalta with Stalin, would approve or disapprove these plans. One of the first decisions to be made was the agreement to defeat Germany first and fight a holding action in the Pacific until Hitler fell.† (Dank, 7). They agreed that an invasion of Western Europe would be appropriate, almost a necessity, to defeat Germany, and they felt early May would be the proper time for such an undertaking, which was unprecedented at this time in world history due to its sheer size and scope. This would allow enough time for the detailed planning of the invasion, the practicing of paratrooper drops, the build up of troops, and the never ending briefings. After additional planning, the leaders decided that, in the b est interests of the invasion, it should be postponed until a later date. â€Å"...this operation is fraught with hazards. Unless these hazards are squarely faced and adequately overcome, the operation cannot succeed. There is no reason why they should not be overcome, provided the energies of all concerned are bent to the problem.† (www.army.mil/cmh-pg/documents/wwii/g4-OL/g4-OL.htm). The date that the invasion would finally take place would be June sixth. June sixth was chosen as the date for Operation Overlord because of many factors which included; a lack of troops that would be available at the original set date; tidal conditions; weather; and a late rising moon. Originally the invasion was going to take place sometime in early May, but when early May approached some of the troops were still engaged in battles elsewhere and would not be available by the time the invasion was scheduled to take place. If the invasion was to have been carried out when it was originally plan ned, the troops would have had to have been spread so thinly, in an attempt to try and cover for absent troops, that the outcome of the mission might have been jeopardized. Since every man was needed for the invasion to succeed it was decided to delay the start date. This invasion would be either a victory over Hitler, or an unfathomable defeat. No matter which outcome, there was going to be a large fatali... ...Since the Allies were not ready when the original D-Day date approached, a new date had to be selected. Many factors were considered in the selection of a new date, and June sixth was chosen as the soonest date that had conditions favorable to the success of the mission. Since Field Marshal Rommel had ordered debris to be dumped in the water around the Normandy shore, creating huge obstacles, one condition was absolutely essential to the Allies; low tide. The tide had to be low to allow allied troops to deploy from landing craft behind the obstacles placed under water. The light breeze that was forecast would clear the beaches of the smoke screens that the Allies would lay down, and a late rising moon was a definite benefit, as it would greatly increase the paratroopers’ safety, since the enemy would not be able to see them. Works Cited †¢ Dank, Milton. Turning Point of World War II. New York: Franklin Watts, 1984. †¢ â€Å"Outline of Operation Overlord† Section VII www.army.mil/cmh-pg/documents/wwii/g4-OL/g4-OL.htm 17 April 2003 †¢ â€Å"D-Day: Operation Overlord† www.thirdreichpages.org/normandy.htm 23 April 2003 †¢ â€Å"Preparations† www.geocities.com/paddyjoe_m/prep.html 23 April 2003

Last Day at School

The last days of one’s long stay anywhere are usually as sad as memorable. The place oneloves to stay in cannot be left for good (forever) without thoughts that bring tears to theeyes and grief to the hearts. Who will not accept that the college is a place which astudent will never like to leave happily? It was perhaps my saddest experience that Iunderwent on my last day in college, just before the preparatory holidays before the present examination. I got lip early in the morning thinking that I should go to college early and stay there latefinally to say farewell to the mother of knowledge, that is, my college.When I reachedthere on the sunny April morning, the flowers were smiling and the trees were welcomingme by stretching out their branches far into the air. Passing by the flowerbeds along thelong road covered with the most attractive trees of the area, 1 reached the main buildingwhere I was to attend my first class of the day. It was the English language class and thete acher, Mr. Tayyab Siddique, was standing before us smiling in his usual frank andhomely way. He shook his head at us, laughed a little and then kept quiet. †What day is itmy students? he asked us. †Sir, it is Tuesday. † †No,† he replied,† It is the last day for allof us together. † Our teacher taught us a short poem by Wordsworth in a most movingway, and then engaged us in conversation. He recalled some incidents in our class of some minor quarrels and his own anger at them. Then he asked us to forget all past bitterness and be friends again. He brought to our minds some pleasant happenings,especially our outings together into the countryside and our cricket and football matchesin the college grounds.The classes on the last day following the English class were full of interest and funr There was teaching, but there were jokes and discussions too leading to some hearty promises between teachers and students not to forget each other. After the classes, someof us decided to go round the most favourite spots on the campus. The first place we went to was the college cafeteria, the usual centre of refreshments, jokes, gossips and petty quarrels. Mir Sahib sitting at the counter welcomed us feelingour passionate moods.We had some cold drinks and snacks together and exchange^ our addresses and discussed our future plans. As 1 stood up with my class-fellows to leavethe cafeteria, I felt the burden of thoughts and feelings crushing me heavily as we werestepping out amidst the loud talk and clamour (loud confused noise) of other studentseating and drinking and making merry. Inen we started for the college hostel, and passing over the green lawns and throughsymmetrical hedges, reached the New Hostel. There I found several of our juniors,ra year students, perhaps waiting for us anxiously T’^v were clapping and waving a ! envelope directed at us. I went close to them, took the envelope, and at once pened it upto find a beauti fully written invitation to a variety show in the evening. About half an hour later, I returned home from the hostel after a familiar chat with the junior students and other friends. In the evening, I returned to college to watch the variety show in the hostel which was, infact, a farewell show for the departing fourth year students. The singers and actorssurprisingly included our English and science teachers and junior and senior students.Afew guest singers from other colleges also took part in the variety i -†¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ -aj-. ime. ThePrincipal and Vice-Principal at the end spoke over the microphone narrating some fine jokes and reproducing some experiences of their stay in the college concerning especiallythe performance of the outgoing fourth year class in studies and sports. And, with the endof the speeches, ended all our formal connections with our beloved college. The teachersand students bade farewell to us with the best of wishes, and we bade farewell to themwith respect and love.From the noises and laughter of the grand gathering in the spreading lawns of the collegewe came out into the stillness of darkness and night. Weighed down with a heavy heartand moving along the lonely road on my bicycle late at night, I was feeling the greatestloss of my life-the loss of college life, for my parents were already planning to send me toa university for post-graduate studies-and the maturity of university life was perhaps nocomparison with the simplicity and innocence of college life

A Nuclear Iran

Can We Live with a Nuclear Iran? | â€Å"Iran’s Nuclear Ambitions†- Rudyard Griffiths| Rosalie Abdo, #6719633, POL1102D-Politics and Globalization, Dr. D Pierre-Antoine| Iran, a relatively large third world regime bordering multiple Middle Eastern countries, has for many years been accused of secretly building nuclear weapons. This is a country with extreme radical ideologies that publicly condemns the west and sends weekly threats of annihilation to Israel.Countries around the world are slowly showing their anxiety of such a nation potentially possessing capabilities of immense means of destruction when their ideologies and past actions suggest such aggressive behaviours. Yet there is no proof to say that Iran does in fact own any nuclear weapons, and they have repeatedly expressed that their nuclear facilities are purely for peaceful and technological purposes. First in this paper I will summarize the argument against the possibility of a nuclear Iran. Second, I will do the opposite and summarize the reasoning for the possibility of a nuclear Iran.Finally, I will conclude with the argument that the world can exist with a nuclear Iran. A variety of arguments against Iran owning nuclear weaponry has been voiced. One of the leading arguments is the fear of nuclear hyper-proliferation. Iran is a relatively powerful nation whose footstep is felt and is very engaged in international affairs concerning its part of the globe. The fear of hyper-proliferation is that once Iran officially has proprietorship of nuclear war devices the surrounding countries and nations of the Middle East will commence an arms race.This would be terrible for a multitude of reasons, the first being that certain countries in the region have shown to be extremely unstable. With radical revolutions still fresh in the blood of its populace Egypt and Syria are perfect examples of countries that do not possess a stable form of government. Nuclear weapons in such states pose an extre me risk because of the lack of regulation; those arms of mass destruction could easily fall in the wrong hands. The second is living in a world filled with nukes is not ideal.The NPT Treaty, signed by all of the world’s nations except a select few, was created in order to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons and attempt at increasing the disarmament of the already existing ones. As this treaty was signed by relatively all countries it must logically follow that they believe in its ideals of slowing down potential nuclear warfare. Another argument is that Iran has shown over and over again its aggressive tendencies as well as its support of violent resolutions. Iran regularly threatens Israel with extinction.Iran has sent major weapons to terrorist organizations such as the Hezbollah in Lebanon and radical rebels in the Gaza Strip to use on Israel. Iran also sent weapons to the Syrian President Al Assad’s regime making it considerably harder for the Syrian popul ation to overthrow their tyrannical oppressor of many decades. Lastly, a nuclear Iran could create a hegemonic Iranian power in the Middle East. With its extremely strategic oil deposit position, this would be very bad for the western world considering Iran’s extreme anti-western policies.There are numerous arguments as to why the world can live with a nuclear Iran. One of the leading arguments for it is deterrence. North Korea, a radical regime who threatens to set ablaze the capital of its neighboring country on a weekly basis, possesses quantities of nuclear armaments. Instead of instigating combat the major powers aimed to deter and contain it; so far this has been extremely successful. Even though this terrifying regime holds in their possession a multitude of nukes, Asia is able prosper and has lived in peace for many years.During the Cold War the USSR was considered an extremely radical regime, one that due to the arms race had ownership of massive amounts of nuclear w eaponry. Again, instead of creating mass conflict, the US aimed to deter and contain it and was very successful. Another leading argument is that not only would a physical conflict with Iran be excessively costly in multiple aspects, but an attack from outsiders could spur a movement of nationalism and rally the populace of Iran together.Considering the size and capability of the country, the ample population, the probable lengthiness of the affair, and the territorial aspect such as the mountain ranges and distances from ports, this would not be a low-cost event. Many American politicians as well as President Obama himself have stated identical answers; it would be devastating to the American economy. This would not only be a disaster financially, but with the local terrain American deaths would more then be guaranteed. This would also undoubtedly infuriate the citizens into a movement maybe more radical than the ones they currently are in.Even if this event would come to be succes sful for the west, what would happen after? This would not encourage western values or affiliation and could injure the reputation of America in the Arab world. With Iran’s current budget for its nuclear program being 300 million dollars, which is nothing compared to its oil revenue, it will only take a few years for the country to reconstruct their nuclear facilities and recommence as before. Although both sides of this debate demonstrate considerable deliberation and thought one has come out victorious. The western world can live with a nuclear Iran.This is not to say that it is a decent notion for Iran to construct nuclear weapons. It is not decent for any country to create nuclear weapons as the horrendous destruction caused by these torturous weapons cannot properly be put on a crime scale. The damage inflicted not only obliterates any living organism in the vicinity of the blasts but remains and either slowly poisons to death anything and everything it comes across or m utates it for years to come whether living or not. Iran’s methods of dealing with international relations are abhorrent and should not be condoned.Yet as menacing as Iran appears to be on the global level the repercussions of acting on it and doing anything more than deterrence and containment toward this country is too much of a risk. One of the reasons why the west can live with a nuclear Iran is that although not on friendly terms, Iran has never directly threatened the west. They do have multiple anti-western policies yet they have never threatened their wellbeing. Iran has been very threatening and aggressive towards certain other nations such as Israel, yet Israel is a state that has been established for over sixty years and possesses over 200 nuclear weapons.This is not suggesting a termination of the alliance between the United States and Israel, but more of a slow and progressive estrangement in its aid. As previously mentioned before, a physical conflict with Iran c ould be devastating on the American economy. Some have argued that a pre-emptive war would not be a necessity for other countries to prevent a nuclear Iran and that by simply initiating tougher sanctions and doing everything that is short of war would be sufficient in thwarting Iran from building nuclear weaponry.There are many problems with this statement the first being that this action has already been done. The sanctions on building nuclear warheads are incredibly strong. The second problem with this is that to have a rule of law that is respected there needs to be an element of enforcement. There can be tougher sanctions put on the regulation of nuclear weapons, but if there is no one to enforce these rules then they are absolutely futile. If this train of thought is logically followed through it becomes apparent that enforcement is necessary in certain cases, war being the necessary implementation.Hence war is a necessity in some cases. This applies to Iran, and the west does not have a budget to follow it through. Another reason why the west could live with a nuclear Iran is that there currently is a country in the Middle East whose possession of nuclear weapons did not initiate an arms race, this country being Israel. Countries like Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, and Qatar all have substantial oil infused treasuries, budgets that could easily commence a nuclear agenda without a second thought.They are residing in the Middle East and did not feel the compulsion or the requirement to initiate an arms race; why would countries fill the need to do so with Iran? There is no evidence that any hyper-proliferation would ever occur. When North Korea declared it was growing a nuclear arsenal the surrounding nations did not attempt to create their own. This is also true with China, when it announced its ownership of nuclear weapons neighboring countries did not react in any sort of arms race.Israel is an extremely controversial country in the morals of the Middle Eastern population. It is more controversial then even Iran’s Shite regime. Many countries do not appreciate its existence, whether they publicly claim so or not. This is not to say that there are countries conspiring in its destruction, but to say that it would have been an easy justification to start constructing nuclear facilities due to the fact that the country is slowly but steadily engulfing all of Palestine.Lastly, the western world can live with a nuclear Iran because as previously stated deterrence has been successful. There are only a select few countries that have ownership of nuclear weaponry. Unfortunately, some of these countries are a part of dangerous regimes such as North Korea or unstable governments like Pakistan, yet due to proper deterrence and containment there not only has not been a nuclear war but there is no reason to believe there will be one in the future.Proper deterrence has also been successful in preventing other countries to attempt creating many more nuclear facilities and arsenals. This is what the west should be focusing on, not imaginary Iranian nuclear weapons that do not exist. If Iran declares its ownership of multiple nuclear weapons and its intention to use them, the western world has a right and an obligation to try to prevent this awful scenario for happening. Yet until this day comes, Iran has a right to build nuclear weapons. A Nuclear Iran Can We Live with a Nuclear Iran? | â€Å"Iran’s Nuclear Ambitions†- Rudyard Griffiths| Rosalie Abdo, #6719633, POL1102D-Politics and Globalization, Dr. D Pierre-Antoine| Iran, a relatively large third world regime bordering multiple Middle Eastern countries, has for many years been accused of secretly building nuclear weapons. This is a country with extreme radical ideologies that publicly condemns the west and sends weekly threats of annihilation to Israel.Countries around the world are slowly showing their anxiety of such a nation potentially possessing capabilities of immense means of destruction when their ideologies and past actions suggest such aggressive behaviours. Yet there is no proof to say that Iran does in fact own any nuclear weapons, and they have repeatedly expressed that their nuclear facilities are purely for peaceful and technological purposes. First in this paper I will summarize the argument against the possibility of a nuclear Iran. Second, I will do the opposite and summarize the reasoning for the possibility of a nuclear Iran.Finally, I will conclude with the argument that the world can exist with a nuclear Iran. A variety of arguments against Iran owning nuclear weaponry has been voiced. One of the leading arguments is the fear of nuclear hyper-proliferation. Iran is a relatively powerful nation whose footstep is felt and is very engaged in international affairs concerning its part of the globe. The fear of hyper-proliferation is that once Iran officially has proprietorship of nuclear war devices the surrounding countries and nations of the Middle East will commence an arms race.This would be terrible for a multitude of reasons, the first being that certain countries in the region have shown to be extremely unstable. With radical revolutions still fresh in the blood of its populace Egypt and Syria are perfect examples of countries that do not possess a stable form of government. Nuclear weapons in such states pose an extre me risk because of the lack of regulation; those arms of mass destruction could easily fall in the wrong hands. The second is living in a world filled with nukes is not ideal.The NPT Treaty, signed by all of the world’s nations except a select few, was created in order to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons and attempt at increasing the disarmament of the already existing ones. As this treaty was signed by relatively all countries it must logically follow that they believe in its ideals of slowing down potential nuclear warfare. Another argument is that Iran has shown over and over again its aggressive tendencies as well as its support of violent resolutions. Iran regularly threatens Israel with extinction.Iran has sent major weapons to terrorist organizations such as the Hezbollah in Lebanon and radical rebels in the Gaza Strip to use on Israel. Iran also sent weapons to the Syrian President Al Assad’s regime making it considerably harder for the Syrian popul ation to overthrow their tyrannical oppressor of many decades. Lastly, a nuclear Iran could create a hegemonic Iranian power in the Middle East. With its extremely strategic oil deposit position, this would be very bad for the western world considering Iran’s extreme anti-western policies.There are numerous arguments as to why the world can live with a nuclear Iran. One of the leading arguments for it is deterrence. North Korea, a radical regime who threatens to set ablaze the capital of its neighboring country on a weekly basis, possesses quantities of nuclear armaments. Instead of instigating combat the major powers aimed to deter and contain it; so far this has been extremely successful. Even though this terrifying regime holds in their possession a multitude of nukes, Asia is able prosper and has lived in peace for many years.During the Cold War the USSR was considered an extremely radical regime, one that due to the arms race had ownership of massive amounts of nuclear w eaponry. Again, instead of creating mass conflict, the US aimed to deter and contain it and was very successful. Another leading argument is that not only would a physical conflict with Iran be excessively costly in multiple aspects, but an attack from outsiders could spur a movement of nationalism and rally the populace of Iran together.Considering the size and capability of the country, the ample population, the probable lengthiness of the affair, and the territorial aspect such as the mountain ranges and distances from ports, this would not be a low-cost event. Many American politicians as well as President Obama himself have stated identical answers; it would be devastating to the American economy. This would not only be a disaster financially, but with the local terrain American deaths would more then be guaranteed. This would also undoubtedly infuriate the citizens into a movement maybe more radical than the ones they currently are in.Even if this event would come to be succes sful for the west, what would happen after? This would not encourage western values or affiliation and could injure the reputation of America in the Arab world. With Iran’s current budget for its nuclear program being 300 million dollars, which is nothing compared to its oil revenue, it will only take a few years for the country to reconstruct their nuclear facilities and recommence as before. Although both sides of this debate demonstrate considerable deliberation and thought one has come out victorious. The western world can live with a nuclear Iran.This is not to say that it is a decent notion for Iran to construct nuclear weapons. It is not decent for any country to create nuclear weapons as the horrendous destruction caused by these torturous weapons cannot properly be put on a crime scale. The damage inflicted not only obliterates any living organism in the vicinity of the blasts but remains and either slowly poisons to death anything and everything it comes across or m utates it for years to come whether living or not. Iran’s methods of dealing with international relations are abhorrent and should not be condoned.Yet as menacing as Iran appears to be on the global level the repercussions of acting on it and doing anything more than deterrence and containment toward this country is too much of a risk. One of the reasons why the west can live with a nuclear Iran is that although not on friendly terms, Iran has never directly threatened the west. They do have multiple anti-western policies yet they have never threatened their wellbeing. Iran has been very threatening and aggressive towards certain other nations such as Israel, yet Israel is a state that has been established for over sixty years and possesses over 200 nuclear weapons.This is not suggesting a termination of the alliance between the United States and Israel, but more of a slow and progressive estrangement in its aid. As previously mentioned before, a physical conflict with Iran c ould be devastating on the American economy. Some have argued that a pre-emptive war would not be a necessity for other countries to prevent a nuclear Iran and that by simply initiating tougher sanctions and doing everything that is short of war would be sufficient in thwarting Iran from building nuclear weaponry.There are many problems with this statement the first being that this action has already been done. The sanctions on building nuclear warheads are incredibly strong. The second problem with this is that to have a rule of law that is respected there needs to be an element of enforcement. There can be tougher sanctions put on the regulation of nuclear weapons, but if there is no one to enforce these rules then they are absolutely futile. If this train of thought is logically followed through it becomes apparent that enforcement is necessary in certain cases, war being the necessary implementation.Hence war is a necessity in some cases. This applies to Iran, and the west does not have a budget to follow it through. Another reason why the west could live with a nuclear Iran is that there currently is a country in the Middle East whose possession of nuclear weapons did not initiate an arms race, this country being Israel. Countries like Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, and Qatar all have substantial oil infused treasuries, budgets that could easily commence a nuclear agenda without a second thought.They are residing in the Middle East and did not feel the compulsion or the requirement to initiate an arms race; why would countries fill the need to do so with Iran? There is no evidence that any hyper-proliferation would ever occur. When North Korea declared it was growing a nuclear arsenal the surrounding nations did not attempt to create their own. This is also true with China, when it announced its ownership of nuclear weapons neighboring countries did not react in any sort of arms race.Israel is an extremely controversial country in the morals of the Middle Eastern population. It is more controversial then even Iran’s Shite regime. Many countries do not appreciate its existence, whether they publicly claim so or not. This is not to say that there are countries conspiring in its destruction, but to say that it would have been an easy justification to start constructing nuclear facilities due to the fact that the country is slowly but steadily engulfing all of Palestine.Lastly, the western world can live with a nuclear Iran because as previously stated deterrence has been successful. There are only a select few countries that have ownership of nuclear weaponry. Unfortunately, some of these countries are a part of dangerous regimes such as North Korea or unstable governments like Pakistan, yet due to proper deterrence and containment there not only has not been a nuclear war but there is no reason to believe there will be one in the future.Proper deterrence has also been successful in preventing other countries to attempt creating many more nuclear facilities and arsenals. This is what the west should be focusing on, not imaginary Iranian nuclear weapons that do not exist. If Iran declares its ownership of multiple nuclear weapons and its intention to use them, the western world has a right and an obligation to try to prevent this awful scenario for happening. Yet until this day comes, Iran has a right to build nuclear weapons.

The Roman Government

The Roman Government Latin Investigation By Abhishek Gambhir January 2013 The High School of Glagow [email  protected] com 1. Table of Contents 3. 4 5. 6. 7. 8. Introduction The Leaders Political Groups Monarchy to Republic Conclusion Bibliography Curia Julia The High School of Glagow [email  protected] com 2. Introduction I have chosen the government for my latin investigation for many reasons. The first and formost reason is that I am very interested in modern politics and how the government works and I thought it would be interesting if I resarched how the romans ruled and governed their country.On the front cover you will see an ancient coin with the letters SPQR on it. This would have stood for â€Å"Senatus Populusque Romanus† Which literarly translated as â€Å"The Senate and People of Rome. † These four letters were one of the most important symbols in roman life it was used as an official emblem of the modern day town of Rome. It appears on coins, at the en d of important documents ,gravestones and was branded on the arms of the men in the Roman legions. SPQR on a Gravestone SPQR on a the base of a statue of Julius CaeserIn the Table of Contents I hve incuded remains of the Roman senate houses. The one on the left is Curia Julia which was the third senate house to be named. It’s construction began in 44 BC by order of Julius Caeser but was interupted by his unfortunate assassination and was completed by Caesar’s successor Augustus in 29 BC. The Curia Julia is one of the only Roman structures to still be standing today. Throughout the Investigation I will look at different points abot what made the Roman government tick, compare it with modern times and give a personal response.So lets begin with†¦. The High School of Glagow [email  protected] com 3. The Emperor The Leaders The emperor was the general learder of Rome and was responsible for the city. I will be using Emperor Augustus as an example. The reign of augus tus started on 16th January 27 BC. This marked the start of a new era known as the Pax Romana (The Roman Peace). By conquering Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, Augustus dramatically expanded the Roman emprie. Beyond the frontiers, he made peace with the Parthian Empire.He reformed the Roman system of taxing, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard(a force of bodyguards for the emperor), created official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and rebuilt much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in 14 AD at the age of 75. He may have died from natural causes, although there were rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as Emperor by his adopted son Tiberius who can be seen at his feet in the statue.The Prime Minister Statue of Emperor Augustus As a comparison I will be talking about the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister, unlike the Roman emperor is bound to â€Å"cabinet responsibility† (making joint decisions). In Latin Prime Minister is â€Å"Primus inter pares† which means â€Å"first among equals. But something the Prime minister and the emperor do have in common is the secutrity. Only other politicians and close friends and family are allowed on downing street. Response The way the Leader operates in there two civilisations is very different.Personally I think that our way of handling things is a bit better because in todays day and age, without the proper security assassination would be common and countries would be thrown into chaos. The High School of Glagow [email  protected] com 4. Political Groups The Roman Senate The Roman Senate was a political organisation in ancient Rome. The word senate derives from the Latin word senex, which means â€Å"old man†. Therefore the word means â€Å"assembly of elders†. The senate was one of the most enduring establishments in Roman history.The Senate was foun ded 500 BC. The senate was mainly composed of very wealthy people who were called the aristocrates. Only a small number of roman people could become a senetor but once someone had become a senetor the could attend the senate until death. By the middle Republic, the Senate reached the pinnacle of its power. As you can see in the ancient painting everyone is wearing a white robe which symbolises power. The late Republic saw a rise in the Senate's power, being led by Tiberius and Gaius Gracchi.British Political Parties As a comparison I will be looking at British political parties. A general election in Britian takes place every 4-5 years but in the Senate, senetors could stay until death once they were appointed. Also in Britian there are multiple political parties to give different viewpoints but in ancient Rome there was only the Senate. Response The way these political groups operate in thier respective civilisation is very different. Our system is democratic whereas the roman syst em is based on wealth and tradition.The Romans have a single party system and whilst this avoids some time being wasted it can make decisions very one sided. The British have a multi party sysetm and this gives more than one opinion on issues and lets the people side with who they want. I think Our system is better because It is less biased than the Romans way. The High School of Glagow [email  protected] com 5. Monarchy to Republic The Roman Republic The Roman Republic (Res-publica Romanorum) was the period of the ancient Roman civilization when the government operated as a republic.It started with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy which happened around 509 BC, and its replacement was government headed by two consuls, elected every year by the citizens and advised by the senate. A regular system, gradually developed over time. The leaders of the Republic developed a strong tradition and morality requiring public service and support in peace and war, making military and politica l success linked. despite the Republic's struggle against any persons gain of permanent political powers, Roman politics was dominated by a small number of Roman leaders, their uneasy alliances punctuated by a series of civil wars.This eventually led to the republics demise. The Roman Republic was never restored, but neither was it abolished, so the exact date of the transition to the Roman Empire is unknown. Historians have proposed the appointment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator in 44 BC, the defeat of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the Roman Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to under the first settlement as the defining event ending the Republic. Britains SwitchAs a comparison I will talk about when Britain moved from Monarchy to the system we are all familiar with today. In 1689,William III (and his wife Mary II) finally brought stability and the Bill of Rights was passed. This required all laws to be approved by Parliament, and for Parliament to be independant of the monarchy. By the time of Queen Victoria, the monarchy was no longer involved in politics, which became dominated by the Prime Minister. A series of Reform Acts from 1832 to 1928 would change the voting age to18. ResponseI think that the Republic system is alot bertter thant the moncrchy and that both civilisations were right in switching. It was just the bad times that the Roman republic did not last but in the modern day we all have a system that we are happy with. The High School of Glagow [email  protected] com 6. Conclusion In conclusion the Roman government was a very well working and very well organised system for the time when it existed. There are alot of ideas that we could take from the Roman system that could help make our one better.The High School of Glagow [email  protected] com Bibliography The Government of the Roman Empire Barbara Levick (Author) The Digest of Roman Law: Theft, Rapine, Damage and Insult Justinian (Author), C. Kolbert (Transla tor) Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire Simon Baker (Author) The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Edward Gibbon (Author) The Roman Government of Britain Anthony R. Birley http://jaysromanhistory. com/rome web/govt/early_govt. htm (Website) The High School of Glagow [email  protected] com 6.